Product Description

An indispensable introduction to the company that will define the twenty-first century economy.

Edited by one of the nation's preeminent labor historians, this book marks an ambitious effort to dissect the full extent of Wal-Mart's business operations, its social effects, and its role in the U.S. and world economy. Wal-Mart is based on a spring 2004 conference of leading historians, business analysts, sociologists, and labor leaders that immediately attracted the attention of the national media, drawing profiles in the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and the New York Review of Books. Their contributions are adapted here for a general audience.

At the end of the nineteenth century the Pennsylvania Railroad declared itself "the standard of the world." In more recent years, IBM and then Microsoft seemed the template for a new, global information economy. But at the dawn of the twenty-first century, Wal-Mart has overtaken all rivals as the world-transforming economic institution of our time.

Presented in an accessible format and extensively illustrated with charts and graphs, Wal-Mart examines such topics as the giant retailer's managerial culture, revolutionary use of technological innovation, and controversial pay and promotional practices to provide the most complete guide yet available to America's largest company.

Product Details

• Amazon Sales Rank: #386153 in Books
• Published on: 2006-01-05
• Original language: English
• Number of items: 1
• Binding: Paperback
• 256 pages

From Publishers Weekly
Culled from an April 2004 conference on Wal-Mart at the University of California, Santa Barbara, these essays can be redundant, but they offer stimulating perspectives on the world's largest corporation. The rise of Wal-Mart, declares editor Lichtenstein (Walter Reuther), has been abetted by a "southernized, deunionized, post–New Deal America," a business culture in which labor costs can be squeezed, even as a company promotes loyalty via "faux classlessness." Several chapters place these phenomena in context: describing how Wal-Mart represents both an extension of and a quantum leap from previous retail giants and how it places unprecedented price pressure on its suppliers. Wal-Mart saves consumers money, the contributors argue, but only by externalizing many social and economic costs, including benefits for its workers. One provocative chapter, based on anonymous worker sources, describes a workplace atmosphere of relentless stress and understaffing. Some interesting tidbits: Wal-Mart hit a wall trying to expand in Mexico and never gained traction in Germany, in both cases because of the countries' different socioeconomic structures. A final chapter, by a union organizer, proposes a "Wal-Mart Workers Association" for this infamously antiunion company. The association would gain 13,000 members if only 1% of the Wal-Mart workforce joined. (Jan.)
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

From Booklist
*Starred Review* In April 2004, Lichtenstein, professor of history at the University of California, Santa Barbara, did something unusual: he invited his academic colleagues to attend a seminar on the largest corporation in America--Wal-Mart. These resulting 12 essays are the culmination of that meeting. The largest employer outside the U.S. government is examined here for the first time by a consortium of scholars rather than through the lens of the typical Wall Street business press. Bethany E. Moreton explores the origins of the company in tiny Bentonville, Arkansas, and describes the behemoth of mass merchandising as a paradox of small-town values and huge corporate efficiency. Edna Bonacich and Khaleelah Hardie investigate Wal-Mart's effect on the logistics of ports and containerized shipping and critique the company for lowering labor standards, driving mom-and-pop retailers out of business, and dictating costs and packaging standards to its suppliers. Brad Seligman looks at the continuing class-action suit that alleges a culture of discrimination against women. With numerous charts and graphs that keep the data flowing, this assemblage thoroughly dissects the Wal-Mart global high-tech phenomenon through overarching historical, cultural, and economic perspectives. Lichtenstein and friends do an incredible job of balancing the wonders and horrors of the force that is Wal-Mart. David Siegfried
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved

About the Author
Nelson Lichtenstein is a professor of history at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is the author of Walter Reuther, Labor's War at Home, and State of the Union.

Customer Reviews

very very useful academic perspective
Neither a polemic nor a whitewash, this book is critical yet strives to be fair. Its perspective is predominantly historical and a bit too academic, but it is well written and simply fascinating.

Sam Walton was a natural salesman, passionate about building his retail business. When founded Wal-Mart in 1962, he did not entertain any dream of becoming the wealthiest man in America or creating the world's largest company. Instead, he wanted to bring big-city discounting to his corner of the rural American South, which would cut about 20% off the prices in local stores. But he wanted the discounts to be offered every day, rather than by one-time sales promotions of selected items. He chose to expand locally, opening stores in his native Arkansas and spreading slowly into Oklahoma, Missouri, and Louisiana. Thus, as the book points out, Wal-Mart's culture reflects where it was born, where its salaries were viewed as fair and people could live reasonably well on them and in a context without strong unions or organized workers.

Walton's strategy was simple: to make up for his low profit margins, he would have to sell in higher volumes of sales in a large number of stores. In addition, his company developed a relentless drive to lower costs by going directly to manufacturers and constantly increasing worker productivity, which often translated into low salaries for a high-turnover work force. He also paid close attention to the competition as well as trained Wal-Mart workers to treat customers with courtesy and consideration of their needs. It was a phenomenal success. In 1985, with just under 1,000 stores, he was named by Forbes Magazine as the richest man in America. By 1991, Wal-Mart was recognized as America's largest retailer as it began to expand overseas. It was repeatedly hailed as the most admired company in America.

In the aftermath of Walton's death, the expansion of the company accelerated with a combination of new technologies (the "logistics revolution") and the globalization of its operations. By 2004, Wal-Mart was number one on the Fortune 500 list, as both the world's largest corporation and the largest non-governmental employer.

From the mid-1990s, Wal-Mart became a pioneer in technology-driven productivity enhancement. Elements included: 1) point-of-sale data collection, enabling managers to track inventory and demand in real time; 2) data mining in order to exploit trends to boost sales via novel merchandising techniques, e.g. placing diapers and six packs of beer near store entryways on Fridays, to exploit a spike in demand for both items at the end of the workweek; 3) the establishment of a just-in-time delivery system, which suppliers and distributors were obligated to participate in and obey, in effect joining Wal-Mart's data network. According to a widely cited estimate by McKinsey and Co., Wal-Mart alone was responsible for 25% of the "gain in productivity" of the U.S. economy from 1995 to 1999! Many of these efficiency gains, the company claimed, were passed directly on to consumers in the form of lower prices. Wal-Mart, the company said, saved U.S. consumers over $100 billion per year.

Combined with its sheer size (Wal-Mart accounts for approximately 10% of all retail sales in the U.S.!) these technological capabilities enabled Wal-Mart to exert an unprecedented degree of control not only over its business partners (independent manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors), but over its employees as well.

On the one hand, this represents a fundamental shift of market power to the retailer, which traditionally had served as outlets for manufacturers. In practical terms, this meant that Wal-Mart could force its partners to set prices at whatever levels that the retailer deemed desirable, which translated into direct control of both their marketing through Wal-Mart stores and in many cases, even the manufacturers' brand. Given the imperative of cost containment, this tends to cut their profit margins to the bone. In the case of Vlasic pickles, for example, some have argued that Wal-Mart's insistence that the company lower prices led to its bankruptcy as well as derailed its brand strategy for high quality at slightly higher prices. One the other hand, managers in Wal-Mart headquarters are able track the productivity of workers in its individual stores, allowing them to push for "improvements", allegedly as unpaid over-time and refusal to take breaks, which many critics charged were degrading and often illegal.

Wal-Mart's size and reach attracted many critics, who condemn its practices and began to mount protest campaigns against the company. Their tactics include grassroots campaigns to block the establishment of new Wal-Mart Supercenters, targeted consumer boycotts, a barrage of media attacks (in films and television, on the internet, and in print), and efforts to unionize Wal-Mart associates. In addition, the company became the object of a growing number of lawsuits (on average two per hour, 365 days per year!) from both current and former employees and customers, including many class-action suits.

Wal-Mart's critics argue passionately that the company had to change in a variety of ways. First, they believe, Wal-Mart had to somehow lessen its impact on the communities that it entered. As it stood, they charge, Wal-Mart not only destroys local "mom and pop" stores that could not compete on price, which sometimes turn traditional downtown shopping areas from vital social centers into ghost towns, but also generate such second-hand effects of increased traffic, reduced demand for other local businesses such as newspapers, additional infrastructure costs that create new tax burdens. Second, Wal-Mart's labor practices, which they believe are brutal and unfair, have to change. The company, they demand, should allow associates to unionize, offer better wages and health insurance benefits, and treat them more humanely. Moreover, critics claim, Wal-Mart's labor practices were dragging down those of its unionized competitors, who were asking employees to "bargain away" their higher salaries, pension plans, and other benefits in order for the companies to survive. Third, they argue, Wal-Mart has to provide a more equitable management of its supply chain, from "sweatshop" workers in China to the company's truckers as well as its manufacturing partners. This often means that the company should pay more for the goods and services it buys.

This criticism amounts to nothing less than a fundamental repudiation of Wal-Mart's business model, which in the words of one critic in this book, "can flourish only by externalizing many of its most important social and economic costs, which are displaced onto a relentlessly squeezed supply chain, an underpaid retail work force, and those many thousand communities...which have been forced to absorb so many intangible expenses..." Even worse, evidence suggests that the criticism resonated with a growing portion of the public. In a 2004 confidential McKinsey & Co., it was reported, between 2 and 8% of the public had ceased to shop at Wal-Mart due to the "negative press" about the company. Most alarming to Wal-Mart executives, however, was the disapproval of more affluent, middle class consumers in urban areas, that is, the group that the company had identified as the market that it must next enter if its growth rates were to improve or even be sustained.

This is about where the book stops, which is unfortunate given the things that have happened recently. As media campaigns against the company grew in 2004, Wal-Mart President and CEO Lee Scott decided to mount a counter-offensive. In its aim respond directly to the claims of critics, this represented a new departure for the company. After hiring the public relations firm Edelman, the company created a rapid-response "war room" in summer, 2005. Among the tasks of the group was the cultivation of a more positive image of the company - as environmentally aware and more worker friendly - in the minds of the "swing voters" who had not yet decided against shopping at Wal-Mart. It wants to be viewed as a good guy again, which in my opinion is a dubious proposition.

The next phase of the story is whether or not this new PR will work. The company certainly got lots of praise for its Katrina relief efforts, and deservedly so if you ask me. But the opposition to the company will persist. My advice is: hold onto your seats because it's gonna be a heckuva ride. For example, just after Scott announced some progressive measures, such as a new health care plan and some environmental initiatives, foes of the company released a leaked internal memo (on strategies to keep employees off the company health care plans) with perfect political timing: the vilification was intense, focusing on how the leopard may not really have changed its spots. These opposition groups are media-savvy and driven - and they will not stop. I have interviewed some of them, and to say the least, they are passionate about their mission, which is not just to block Wal-Mart but on how to shape the direction in which their communities will develop. Instead of asking "how many jobs", they are looking at what kinds of jobs are being created. In my view, this represents a fundamentally new kind of social movement and Wal-Mart had better take heed.

Recommended as the best book I have yet read on the company. While it is predominantly historical, it explains many useful things about the company that are unavailable elsewhere. Also, there are wonderful histories about the retail trade.

Sure Wal-Mart is swill ,but this book is dry and boring
Before commenting on this very boring,badly written junk book I think it is necessary to comment on some of the political diatribes that herein pass for "reviews"of this volume...Everyone knows that at wal-mart prices are low because the company is cut-throat,doesn't pay its workers well,and has as it's primary goal the intention to drive as many of its competitors out of business as possible..so what else is new?In an era that allows a brainless twit like George W.Bush to have two terms as president,that has seen repeated tax give-aways to the rich but no increase in the federal minimum wage for the poor,that allows government to step on the constitution and trash the bill of rights,one can only wonder at the self-righteous fulminating to be found in reviews that say more about liberal anger than about how badly written this book is...Hey!Wal-Mart thrives for the same reason that George W.Bush remains president,and for the same reason thatthe rich get richer while the poor remain poor;BECAUSE A MAJORITY OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC ALLOW THIS TO HAPPEN !
This book is written is an ultra-dry,statistical style,apparently designed for someone other than the average reader...If the people responsible for this book thought that with its publication a spark would be ignited that would burn wal-mart to the ground they were-and are-mistaken...while poring over the data in this volume may indeed show wal-mart to be the predatory corporate villian that we all already accept as fact,it is not likely that many will take the time and the effort necessary to do so..and effort is needed,as reading through most of what is contained in this volume is about as entertaining as reading the phone-book cover to cover.

Good Insights!
The book begins by summarizing the 10/11/03 lockout/strike of 59,000 Southern California grocery workers from 850 supermarkets in an effort to maintain wages and healthcare insurance the UFCW had negotiated over 50 years. The lockout/strike ended Feb./Mar. of '04 with a decisive defeat for grocery workers - the new contract slashed starting pay and capped health insurance payouts. The one point of agreement was that the struggle was initiated by industry management trying to prepare for expected competition from Wal-Mart in their area. (Some experts see Wal-Mart becoming the nation's leading grocer by '08.)

Wal-Mart is attributed to bring over 230,000 shipping containers across the Pacific each year - approximately 100 containership loads, and about 10-20% of transhipped through Southern California. Its overseas suppliers employ up to 65,000 at a single facility (Huyen-Binh-Chanh in VN).

Discounters' labor costs average about 15% of sales (about half that of department stores); Wal-Mart's are another 25% less. One means of selling its low wages is to also offer profit-sharing - however, few take advantage because qualifying requires two years' employment to qualify (40%+ turnover/year). Only 7% of its employees try to support a family with children on a single Wal-Mart income -> reduced need for benefits. A 32-hour week is considered "standard" at Wal-Mart (some employees do work 40 hours. It probably has a higher percentage of managers start in low-paying jobs and lacking a college/university degree than any other large company in the world.

Adding groceries to Wal-Mart's existing stores typically increased sales of non-food items 30%.

Wal-Mart's "Plus One" principal: - each product's price should be lowered or its quality improved each year. Over 500 large vendors have a permanent sales office near Wal-Mart's headquarters. It requires suppliers to open their books and undergo detailed cost analyses; trade-promotions and direct-marketing campaign costs are deducted from the wholesaler's price. Vendors can access saels data directly, providing the ability to test new products more easily/quickly, and to simply product production and setting inventory levels.

Providing national brands helps Wal-Mart document its status a a low-price leader; store brands (abouat 40% of the total) appeal to the more price conscious shoppers.

Methods of Controlling Labor Costs: Making indenpendent contractors out of truckers bringing containers out of port prevents them from trying to organize or join a union - would bring anti-trust suits; in addition, a large portion are immigrants - particularly difficult to organize. Staffing distribution centers with temporary agencies/employee-leasing firms allows a quick change if organizing develops.

Wal-Mart originally incorporated each store separately, thus allowing sales/store to fall under levels that would require paying the minimum wage - this was stopped by a court-ruling in '67. (K-Mart took the concept a step further - licensing out different departments within a store to different companies.) A computer staffing system dictates lower staffing/sale as sales levels increase; people are sent home early when sales fall. Managers are pushed to "beat yesterday" to retain their position and earn bonuses.

The rest of the book is taken up with general retail history, a summary of the class-action suit claiming Wal-Mart discriminates against women in promotion decisions, and background on Wal-Mart's foray into Mexico.

My opinion is that blaming Wal-Mart for low wages/benefits is misplaced - Wal-Mart would not be able to do this if the economy were better. Thus, the weak economy is the problem, and Wal-Mart provides a preview of how life will be for more and more Americans as international competition increases.